Preferred name: Baccharis halimifolia
Authority: Linnaeus
Taxonomic position: Plantae: Magnoliophyta: Angiospermae: Campanulids: Asterales: Asteraceae: Asteroideae
Common names in English: Florida groundsel bush, consumption weed, eastern baccharis, groundsel baccharis (US), groundsel bush, groundsel tree, salt bush, saltmarsh elder, sea myrtle, seepwillow, tree groundsel, waterbrush
view more common names online...
EPPO Categorization: A2 list
EU Categorization: IAS of Union concern
view more categorizations online...
EPPO Code: BACHA

History of introduction and spread

In Australia, the plant was first introduced for ornamental purposes around 1900 in Queensland. By 1930 it was considered invasive, spreading to neighboring areas, and is now recorded in New South Wales (Sims-Chilton & Panetta, 2011).

The first record of B. halimifolia in the EPPO region dates back to 1683 in France, where it was introduced for ornamental reasons (Fournier, 1936). There are indications of its cultivation in several botanical gardens, for instance, in Paris in 1796 (Jardin des Plantes) or in Montpellier in 1824 (AME & CBNMP, 2003). During the 19th century, the cultivation of B. halimifolia as an ornamental plant was recommended in several horticultural books (Duhamel du Monceau, 1800; Dupuis & Herincq, 1884). The plant was particularly used for its tolerance to salinity, both in soil and in wind spray. It is also widely used as an ornamental plant on roadsides and roundabouts in coastal areas, and is also used on canal shores for stabilization, and more rarely in areas where small game are raised.

In Spain, B. halimifolia was reported for the first time by Allorge (1941) in the Basque Country (from Lekeitio to Deba). The Gobierno Vasco (2011) noted that although the species did not seem to be available in nurseries in the Basque country, B. halimifolia was nevertheless found in gardens in Asturias (Gonzalez Costales, 2007). The species is suspected to have invaded some natural areas in the Spanish Basque country through natural spread by wind from the French Basque Country (Estela Beteta, Gobierno Vasco, pers. comm., 2012).

In Belgium, the plant was mentioned for the first time as introduced in 1924. It is thought to have been introduced intentionally in coastal dunes as a windbreak (Verloove, 2011). This plant is now recorded to be used in soil bioengineering systems to stabilize tidal shorelines because of its ability to root from a dormant, unrooted cutting (Invasive Alien Species in Belgium Website).

There are only two records of B. halimifolia in the UK, where the plant is known to have occurred since 1942 (Clements & Foster, 1994). The introduction of the species has been reported more recently in Italy in the Veneto region (Zanetti, 1997; Minelli, 2009; Pizzo & Buffa, 2009) and in the Tuscany region (Coaro, 1987; Arrigoni & Viegi, 2011), in both cases in coastal areas.

Notes

In Canada, B. halimifolia reaches its northern limit range and it is considered as an extremely rare Atlantic coastal plains species, occurring only in Tusket River estuary and its vicinity. Official conservation programmes are being implemented in this area (Nova Scotia Website, Species at Risk Conservation Fund 2009 Approved Projects).

In New Zealand, according to Webb et al. (1988), the species was recorded as locally established on Banks Peninsula (Canterbury) only: Evans Pass, Lyttelton, Victoria Park and Barrys Bay (Lynne Huggins, Department of Conservation, New Zealand, pers. comm., 2012).

The species had been recorded in the Netherlands, but is not known to be present anymore in this country (van Valkenburg et al., 2013). The plant is also recorded as planted in the Ataturk arboretum in Istanbul, but has so far not been recorded in the wild (Ibreliler Website, www.ibreliler.com).

EPPO Region: Belgium, France (mainland), Georgia, Italy (mainland), Spain (mainland), United Kingdom
North America: Canada (Nova Scotia), Mexico, United States of America (Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia)
Central America and Caribbean: Bahamas, Cuba
Oceania: Australia (New South Wales, Queensland), New Zealand

Plant type

Baccharis halimifolia is a branching shrub or small tree growing up to 4 m high.

Description

Baccharis halimifolia’s trunk can reach 16 cm in diameter. Its leaves are alternate, pale green, thick; those of the stem and lower branches are obovate to elliptic or oblanceolate, 2–7 cm long and 1–5 cm wide; those of the branchlets are smaller, cuneate at the base, several-toothed above the middle. B. halimifolia is dioecious. Flowers are small, female ones are whitish, male ones are greenish. Flower heads are situated in terminal or axillary clusters of 1–5. Achenes are 1–2 mm long, pappus is bright-white, 6–8 mm long (Weber, 2003; Muller, 2004).

General 

Baccharis halimifolia is generally an evergreen, but in the cooler parts of its native range, it is deciduous (Sims-Chilton & Panetta, 2011). B. halimifolia grows fast, up to 30 to 40 cm per year (Herrera & Campos, 2010). Shrubs are mature within 2 years and flower every year (Panetta, 1979b). The species reproduces mainly by seeds, but can also reproduce vegetatively by sprouting from the base, following disturbance (Westman et al., 1975). B. halimifolia flowers at the end of the summer (August to October in France) and is wind-pollinated. Seeds are produced from October to November (in France). They are abundant, estimations range between 10 000 (Auld, 1970) to 1 500 000 per year for a healthy adult plant growing in full sunlight (Westman et al., 1975), and are dispersed by wind, potentially over long distances, as well as by water. Seeds germinate easily (usually in 1–2 weeks) if sufficient soil moisture is available (Westman et al., 1975). The seed bank is expected to persist for at least 2 years (Panetta, 1979a). 

Habitats

In its native range, B. halimifolia occurs in open sandy places, wet fields, marshes, beaches, disturbed sites, roadsides, old fields, from 0 to 100 metres above sea level (Sundberg & Bogler, 2006). It is considered as a common species in upland fringes of coastal saline marshes and back dune habitats (Cronquist, 1980). It is also capable of establishing in disturbed habitats such as fallow fields and hedgerows, as well as inland saline soils (Krischik & Denno, 1990).

In Australia, B. halimifolia established within a wide variety of plant communities, from dry Eucalyptus forests to native tea-tree (Melaleuca quinquenervia) swamps (Westman et al., 1975). It is particularly suited to moist gullies, salt marsh areas and wetlands. It also grows on high, cleared slopes (Anonymous, 2007a). As in its native range, B. halimifolia is also found in disturbed habitats, including cleared unused land, cleared slopes (Anonymous, 2007a), tropical pastures, irrigation channels and coastal canals (Westman et al., 1975) or exotic pine plantations, e.g. Pinus elliottii (Panetta, 1979a,b).

On the Atlantic coast of Europe, B. halimifolia is known to escape from cultivation (private gardens, hedges and roundabouts) and to establish first in artificial habitats: along roadsides, along canals, in agricultural, industrial or on old saltworks wastelands (Le Moigne & Magnanon, 2009). From these habitats, it invades coastal wetlands such as saltmarshes, moist and wet dune slack, water-fringing reedbeds, meadows and open woodlands (Muller, 2004) and humid prairies (Zendoia et al., 2006). It is also found in drier habitats such as heathlands with Ulex europaeus or in the upper beach area (Anonymous, 2007b). It also invades cliffs (Campos et al., 2004).

The main habitats in which B. halimifolia is known to occur in the EPPO region according to the EUNIS habitat classification are provided in the EPPO PRA Record for B. halimifolia.

Environmental requirements 

Baccharis halimifolia can be found on a wide range of soil types. It grows most typically in moist soils with high organic content (Sims-Chilton & Panetta, 2011). However, in Spain, B. halimifolia was also associated with high elevations and coarse sand (Onaindia et al., 2001; cited in Sims-Chilton & Panetta, 2011). The plant is observed on soils with pH values ranging from 3.6 to 9 (Westman et al., 1975). In both its native and exotic ranges, it is often found in soil covered by water with salinity ranging from 0 to 3.6% (Westman et al., 1975). 

In its native area, B. halimifolia is found from Florida, which has a humid subtropical to tropical climate, to areas such as Massachusetts, which has snowfall in winter (USDA-ARS Website). It covers four plant hardiness zones from 9 to 6 with mean annual minimum temperatures of -17.8°C/-23.3°C in the latter zone (Ervin, 2009). It is frost tolerant, and can withstand temperatures as low as -15°C (Huxley, 1992 in Muller, 2004). Westman et al. (1975) found that optimal germination occurs between 15 and 20°C with cold pre-treatment at 5°C. This shows the temperate to subtropical range of the species. 

Uses and benefits 

The species is reported to be used as a food supplement for its medicinal value and as a cleanser promoting weight loss (Fédération des Conservatoires Botaniques Nationaux, undated).

Natural dispersal 

Baccharis halimifolia seeds are very small, their mass is approximately 0.11 mg (Panetta, 1977) and they are crowned by a pappus and are therefore readily dispersed by wind (Boldt, 1987) but also by water (Panetta, 1977). 

Movement in trade

The plant is used as an ornamental and amenity plant due to its tolerance to salinity. ‘Ornamental’ and ‘amenity’ are defined according to Lambdon et al. (2008): 

(1) Ornamental species are cultivated on a small scale (especially in private gardens). 

(2) Amenity species are cultivated on a large to moderate scale in public places for landscaping purposes (e.g., for soil stabilization or aesthetic enhancement). 

Trade for ornamental purposes can occur both via the internet and by direct retail at the nursery. The plant is widely available in garden centres and nurseries in Europe.

Effects on plants 

In its native range, B. halimifolia is considered a weed as it invades overgrazed rangeland in the Southern United States (Nesom, 2006). In Australia, B. halimifolia is a pest of pastures, where thick stands can inhibit the movement of stock and reduce the productivity of grazed areas (Ensbey, 2001). Nevertheless, there are currently no records of impacts on pastures in the EPPO region. 

Environmental and social impact 

Baccharis halimifolia can outcompete other plants. It forms dense monospecific stands that are persistent as each shrub can live up to 25 years, and can have detrimental impacts on native populations and communities. Once established, the shrub blocks the light to other species, modifying micro-climatic conditions, leading to a regression of herbaceous species (Muller, 2004). Studies conducted at the habitat scale demonstrate that B. halimifolia significantly reduces the species richness (Pierre, 2012; Fried et al., 2014). Invasion by B. halimifolia also leads to a marked change in the structure and physiognomy of the invaded community (Campos et al., 2004). B. halimifolia can also cause physical modifications of habitats. As leaves and wood of B. halimifolia secrete an inflammable resin (Bean, 1981), dense thickets of B. halimifolia could increase fire frequency in invaded habitats (Muller, 2004). Lozano Valencia & Alagon Cardoso (1995) report modifications in productivity and in nutrient cycling, including changes in the rates of erosion and sedimentation of the affected estuaries. Such impacts are recorded to occur in threatened habitats listed in the Annex I of the EC Habitats Directive (Directive 92/43), in particular in France and in Spain (e.g. Atlantic salt meadows, Mediterranean salt meadows, Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic halophilous scrubs, Embryonic shifting dunes, see the EPPO PRA record for B. halimifolia for further details). 

In addition, B. halimifolia may threaten rare or vulnerable species. In the Spanish Basque country, B. halimifolia is thought to have reduced the populations of Matricaria maritima (Campos et al., 2004), which is included within the category ‘danger of extinction’ in the ‘Basque Catalogue of Threatened Species of the Wild and Marine Fauna and Flora’. Other estuarine species present in invaded rush marshes such as Cochlearia aestuaria, Frankenia laevis, Limonium humile, Salicornia spp. or Sarcocornia perennis are already endangered at the regional level in the Basque country (Uribe-Echebarrıa & Campos, 2006). Galarza & Hidalgo (2005–2006) also report that the stands of B. halimifolia have an impact on bird populations associated with invaded habitats. The plant is considered to reduce the attractiveness and use of the habitats for nesting, roosting and feeding. B. halimifolia is then suspected to threaten Acrocephalus arundinaceus (Acrocephalideae, registered on the Annexe 2 of the Bonn and the Bern Conventions) and Emberiza schoeniclus (Emberizideae, registered on the Annex 2 of the Bern Convention). 

Concerning social and human health impacts, the establishment of B. halimifolia occurs in areas where mosquitoes are present. Dense thickets of B. halimifolia protect mosquito larvae from insecticide treatments and impede access for mosquito control (Bouterin & Canonge, 1999 in Muller, 2004). B. halimifolia is also reported to cause hay fevertype allergies (Moss, 1967; cited in Panetta, 1979b; DeLoach et al., 1986) caused by airborne pollen and seed ‘fluff’ (Anonymous, 2007a). Moreover, as B. halimifolia is highly flammable its establishment in fallow lands may increase the fire hazard and threaten security (on industrial sites for instance) (Muller, 2004; Invasive Alien Species in Belgium Website). When established near salt marshes, B. halimifolia is detrimental to salt production as it forms a wind break and contaminates salt with seeds (David, 1999). 

As the species is difficult to control, management costs are quite expensive. To give an indication, the manual pulling out of plants coupled with the use of herbicide over 298 ha cost 630 000 EUR in 2011 in the framework of the Basque country Life + project (LIFE project 08NAT/E/ 000055 Website).

The first step in controlling B. halimifolia is the reduction of its use as an ornamental plant, in particular along roads. Flooding with marine water could limit the spread of the species. Nevertheless, such a technique can only be considered in salt marshes (Muller, 2004). Cutting and uprooting can locally control the plant, but these expensive measures have to be repeated several times because of the resprouting ability of the species, and its large seed bank. If plants are removed manually, the roots should be cut well below the soil surface to prevent resprouting. When uprooting is not possible, regularly cutting the shrubs before they set seeds can stop the spread of the plant. Sheep grazing can reduce the spread of B. halimifolia locally, when there is a heavy pasture load (the species has a low palatability) (Muller, 2004; Charpentier et al., 2006).

Chemical control is providing satisfactory results with 2,4-D, dicamba plus MCPA, glyphosate, picloram plus 2,4-D, and tryclopyr (Weber, 2003). Control through fire has proven to be inefficient (Muller, 2004). Several biological control agents have been tested, but are not regarded as highly efficient.

In 2016, B. halimifolia was included in the EU Regulation 1143/2014 and the species is now on the list of species of Union concern.

In Spain, B. halimifolia is registered on the Catalogue of Invasive Alien Species for which introduction, possession, trade and transport of the species listed is prohibited (Ministerio de agricultura, alimentacion y medio ambiente, Boletın Official de Estado, 2011). 

Baccharis halimifolia has been declared an unwanted organism under the New Zealand Biosecurity Act 1993, which makes it illegal to knowingly release, spread, display or sell, breed, propagate or otherwise distribute plants or part thereof. 

In Australia, the species is considered noxious and is regulated in Queensland and New South Wales (as well as in Northern Territory where it is not recorded as present) (Weeds Australia Database).

EPPO (2013) recommend a prohibition of import and trade in the EPPO region and within countries of B. halimifolia plants for planting

Allorge P (1941) Essai de synthèse phytogéographique du Pays Basque. Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France 88, 66 (in French). 

AME & CBNMP (2003) Plantes envahissantes de la région Méditerranéenne. AME, ARPE, 42 p. 

Anonymous (2007a) Fact sheet. Groundsel bush (Baccharis halimifolia). Biosecurity Queensland, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Brisbane (AU) (in French). 

Anonymous (2007b) La lutte contre les plantes envahissantes sur le site Gavres-Quiberon. Syndicat Mixte Gavres – Quiberon (in French). 

Arrigoni PV & Viegi L (2011) La flora vascolare esotica spontaneizzata della Toscana. Regione Toscana. Direzione generale Politiche territoriali, ambientali e per la mobilita Settore Tutela e valorizzazione delle risorse ambientali (in Italian). 

Auld BA (1970) Groundsel bush, a dangerous woody weed of the far north coast. The Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales 81, 32–34. 

Bean W (1981) Trees and Shrubs Hardy in Great Britain. John Murray, London (GB). 4 Vols and Supplement. 

Boldt PE (1987) Host specificity and laboratory rearing studies of Megacyllene mellyi (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), a potential biological control agent of Baccharis neglecta Britt (Asteraceae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 89, 665–672. 

Bouterin B & Canonge L (1999) Dynamique et évolution des peuplements de Baccharis halimifolia, delimitation de ses conditions écologiques (entre Fos-sur-mer et Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône). Rapport de stage de DEUST, Entente Interdepartementale pour la Demoustication & Universite de Droit d’Economie et des Sciences de St Jérôme, Marseille, France (FR) (in French). 

Campos JA, Herrera M, Biurrun I & Loidi J (2004) The role of alien plants in the natural coastal vegetation in central-northern Spain. Biodiversity and Conservation 13, 2275–2293. 

Clements EJ & Foster MC (1994) Alien Plants of the British Isles: A Provisional Catalogue of Vascular Plants (Excluding Grasses). Botanical Society of the British Isles, UK (GB).

Coaro E (1987) Flora e vegetazione del Bosco dell’Ulivo (Parco di Migliarino, S. Rossore e Massaciuccoli). Quaderni del Museo di Storia Naturale di Livorno 8(Suppl. 1), 1–45 (in Italian). 

Correll DS & Correll HB (1982) Flora of the Bahama Archipelago. Cramer J, FL-9490 Vaduz, Germany (DE). 1692 pp. 

Charpentier A, Riou K & Thibault M (2006) Bilan de la campagne de contrôle de l’expansion du Baccharis halimifolia menée dans le parc naturel régional de Camargue (PNRC) en automne 2004 et 2005 (in French). 

Cronquist A (1980) Vascular flora of the Southeastern United States. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (US). 

David C (1999) Etude du Baccharis halimifolia dans les marais salants de Guérande et du Mes. Note de synthèse du rapport de stage pour le Syndicat Intercommunal de la Cote d’Armor et de la presqu’île Guérandaise, Guérande (FR), 41 pp (in French). 

DeLoach CJ, Boldt PE, Cordo HA, Johnson HB & Cuda JP (1986) Weeds common to Mexican and U.S. rangelands: Proposals for biological control and ecological studies. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on Management and Utilization of Arid Land Plants, Saltillo, Mexico, 18–22 February 1985 (Ed. Patton DR), pp. 49-67. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins (US). 

Duhamel du Monceau HL (1800) Traité des arbres et arbustes que l’on cultive en France. Seconde édition, considérablement augmentée; [Tome premier]. 2 Edition. Didot aine, Paris (FR) (in French). 

Dupuis A & Herincq F (1884) Horticulture. Végétaux d’ornements. Abel Pilon et Cie Editeurs, Paris, France (FR). 

Ensbey R (2001) Groundsel Bush. NSW Agriculture, Grafton (US) (in French).  

EPPO (2013) Pest risk analysis for Baccharis halimifolia. EPPO, Paris. Available at http://www.eppo.int/QUARANTINE/Pest_Risk_Analysis/PRA_intro.htm

Ervin GN (2009) Distribution, habitat characteristics, and new countylevel tecords of Baccharis halimifolia L. on a portion of its present US range boundary. Southeastern Naturalist 8, 293–304. 

Fédération des Conservatoires Botaniques Nationaux (undated) Baccharis halimifolia. 6 pp. http://invmed.fr/sites/invmed.fr/files/pictures/Fiche%20-%20Baccharis-halimifolia_sr.pdf 

Flora of North America, Vol. 20, Baccharis halimifolia. http://www. efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=250066181 

Fournier P (1936) Les Quatre flores de France. Lechevalier, Paris (FR) (in French). 

Fried G, Laitung B, Pierre C, Chague N & Panetta FD (2014) Impact of invasive plants in Mediterranean habitats: disentangling the effects of characteristics of invaders and recipient communities. Biological Invasions 6, 1639–1658. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-013-0597-6

Gobierno Vasco. Direccion de Biodiversidad y Participacion Ambiental. Comision Internacional de Seguimiento e Intercambio de Experiencias (2011) Baccharis halimifolia. http://www.ingurumena. ejgv.euskadi.net/r49-life55c/es/contenidos/informacion/life_estuarios/ es_life/adjuntos/14_conclusiones_com_internacional_life_estuarios. pdf 

Gonzalez Costales JA (2007) Plantas aloctonas invasoras en el Principado de Asturias. Consejerıa de Medio Ambiente, Ordenacion del Territorio e Infraestructuras y Obra Social “la Caixa”. Oviedo (in Spanish). 

Herrera M & Campos JA (2010) Flora alochtona invasora en Bizkaia. Instituto para la Sostenibilidad de Bizkaia. 196 pp. (in Spanish) 

Huxley A (1992) The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. MacMillan/ Stockton Press, London. 

Invasive Alien Species in Belgium Website, Baccharis halimifolia. http://ias.biodiversity.be/species/show/41 

Kikodze D, Memiadze N, Kharazishvili D, Manvelidze Z & MuellerSchaerer H (2010) The Alien Flora of Georgia. Joint SNSF SCOPES and FOEN publication, 36 pp

Krischik VA & Denno RF (1990) Patterns of growth, reproduction, defense, and herbivory in the dioecious shrub Baccharis halimifolia (Compositae). Oecologia 83, 182–190. 

Lambdon PW, Pysek P, Basnou C, Hejda M, Arianoutsou M, Essl F et al. (2008) Alien flora of Europe: species diversity, temporal trends, geographical patterns and research needs. Preslia 80, 101– 149. 

Lozano Valencia PJ & Alagon Cardoso I (1995) Estudio fitogeografico y botanico de las Islas del Bidasoa. Lurralde: investigacion y espacio 18, 197–228 (in Spanish). 

Ministerio de agricultura, alimentacion y medio ambiente, Boletın Official de Estado, Lunes 12 de diciembre de (2011), Num. 29, Sec. I., 25 pp. http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2011/12/12/pdfs/BOE-A-2011- 19398.pdf (in Spanish). 

Le Moigne G & Magnanon S (2009) Le séneçon en arbre (Baccharis halimifolia). Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest (in French). 

LIFE project 08NAT/E/000055 Website Restoration of habitats of Community interest in estuaries of the Basque Country. http://www. ingurumena.ejgv.euskadi.net/r49-life55/en/ 

Minelli A (2009) Lagoons, Estuaries and Deltas - Boundaries between the Sea and Rivers. Italian Ministry of the Environment and Territorial Protection, Museo Friulano di Storia Naturale, Udine, Italy (IT). 

Moss JE (1967) A flowering calendar of possible hay fever plants in Brisbane. Medical Journal of Australia 1, 270–272. 

Muller S (2004) Plantes invasives en France, Museum national d’Histoire naturelle. Paris (FR). 

Nesom G (2006) Groundsel Tree Baccharis halimifolia L. USDA NRCS, 3p. 

Nova Scotia Website, Species at Risk Conservation Fund 2009 Approved Projects. http://novascotia.ca/natr/wildlife/conservationfund/ 2009projects.asp 

Onaindia M, Albizu I & Amezaga I (2001) Effect of time on the natural regeneration of salt marsh. Applied Vegetation Science 4, 247–256. 

Panetta FD (1977) The effect of shade upon seedling growth in groundsel bush (Baccharis halimifolia L.). Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 28, 681–690. 

Panetta FD (1979a) The effects of vegetation development upon achene production in the woody weed, groundsel bush (Baccharis halimifolia L.). Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30, 1053–1065. 

Panetta FD (1979b) Germination and seed survival in the woody weed, groundsel bush (Baccharis halimifolia L.). Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 30, 1067–1077. 

Pierre C (2012) Impact de huit plantes invasives sur des communautés végétales de la region méditerranéenne. AgroSup Dijon (in French). 

Pizzo L & Buffa G (2009) Analisi dei processi d’invasione di piante esotiche nei paesaggi costieri sabbiosi del Veneto. 104th Congress of the Italian Botanical Society, Campobasso, Italy (IT) (in Italian). 

Sims-Chilton NM & Panetta FD (2011) The biology of Australian weeds 58. Baccharis halimifolia L. Plant Protection Quarterly 26, 114–123. 

Sundberg SD & Bogler DJ (2006) Baccharis. Pages 23–28 in F. o. N. A. E. c. e. 1993+, editor. Flora of North America North of Mexico, New York and Oxford (US, GB). 

Thellung MA (1916) Quelques plantes adventices de France. Le Monde des Plantes 99, 11–13 (in French). 

Uribe-Echebarrıa PM & Campos JA (2006) Flora vascular amenazada en la Comunidad Autonoma del Paıs Vasco. Gobierno Vasco, Vitoria-Gasteiz (ES) (in Spanish). 

USDA-ARS Website, Baccharis halimifolia. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland (US). http://www.ars-grin.gov/ cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?6232 

Van Valkenburg J, Duistermaat H & Meerman H (2013) Baccharis halimifolia L. in the Netherlands: what withholds Tree Groundsel? Gorteria 37, 113–115 (in Dutch). 

Verloove F (2008) La flore urbaine de Dunkerque (Nord): quelques xénophytes remarquables. Le Monde des Plantes 494, 11–14 (in French). 

Verloove F (2011) Baccharis halimifolia L. Manual of the Alien Plants in Belgium. http://alienplantsbelgium.be/content/baccharishalimifolia-0 

Virtual Herbarium of Australia (2014) Baccharis halimifolia. http://avh. ala.org.au/occurrences/search?taxa=baccharis+halimifolia#tab_map View [accessed on 10 January 2014]. 

Webb CJ, Sykes WR & Garnock-Jones PJ (1988) Flora of New Zealand. Vol. IV. Naturalised Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Dicotyledons. Botany Division, D.S.I.R, Christchurch, New Zealand (NZ). 

Weber E (2003) Invasive Plant Species of the World. A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. CABI Publishing, Oxon (GB). 

Weeds Australia Database. http://www.weeds.org.au/noxious.htm

Westman WE, Panetta FD & Stanley TD (1975) Ecological studies on reproduction and establishment of the woody weed, groundsel bush (Baccharis halimifolia L.: Asteraceae). Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 26, 855–870. 

Zanetti M (1997) Atlante della Flora notevole della Pianura veneta orientale. Ediciclo. Ed., Italy (IT), ISBN 88-85327-75-3, 209 pp (in Italian). 

Zendoia I, Oreja L, Garmendia J, Azpiroz M, Arbelaitz E, Urkizu A et al. (2006) Cladium mariscus formazioen kartografia, karakterizazioa eta kontserbazio-egoera. Aranzadi. 30 pp (in Basque).

EPPO (2024) Baccharis halimifolia. EPPO datasheets on pests recommended for regulation. https://gd.eppo.int (accessed 2024-12-25)

This datasheet was first published in the EPPO Bulletin in 2014 and is now maintained in an electronic format in the EPPO Global Database. The sections on 'Identity' and 'Geographical distribution' are automatically updated from the database. For other sections, the date of last revision is indicated on the right.

EPPO (2014) Datasheets on invasive alien plants. Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. EPPO Bulletin 44(1), 5-10. https://doi.org/10.1111/epp.12089